Water use in electricity generation
Source:
Bliss Dennen, Dana Larson, Cheryl Lee, James Lee and Stacy Tellinghuisen
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Key for Reading Spreadsheets
At the top of each spreadsheet, the water requirements for each step in the generation process are listed. At the bottom of each spreadsheet, different technological options are combined and total estimates of water requirements are provided. Water inputs for all energy sources (EXCEPT coal) are color coded as follows:
Agriculture Mining Transportation Processing Cooling Cleaning Evaporative Losses (hydroelectric facilities only) Other
References and sources are identified with their numbers using the following code:
W= Withdrawal C= Consumption H= High figure L= Low figure
neration process re combined and
wing code:
Water Requirements for Bioenergy Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh BIOENERGY Item Agriculture, Rapeseed Agriculture, Sugarcane Agriculture, Sugar Beet Agriculture, Corn Agriculture, Wheat Biomass-based steam plant Improved biomass-based steam plant Gasification-based, combined cycle generation 0.3600 0.3600 0.3600 0.3600 Quench feed water for wet scrubbing of syngas (exiting gasifier) Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High 360 133 256 263 144 630 558 677 1250 1260 Consumption m^3/MWh Low High 360 133 256 263 144 630 558 677 1250 1260
2.5198 2.5198 2.5198 2.5198
1.7999 1.7999 1.7999 1.7999
0.1080 3.2400
Withdrawal Consumption m^3/MWh m^3/MWh Item Low High Low High Simple Cycle 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 Combined cycle, wet cooling 0.87 0.87 0.68 0.68 Combined cycle, dry cooling 0.15 0.15 0 0 Combined cycle, once-thru cooling 75.7 9.08 0.38 0.38 BIOGAS Steam turbine, once-thru cooling 189.25 75.7 Steam turbine, wet cooling 1.14 3.03 Steam turbine, dry cooling 0.15 0.15 Steam turbine, pond cooling 1.14 2.27 1.14 0.91 0 1.14 1.14 2.42 0 1.82
Mining, combined cycle conversion technology 0 0
0
0
Transportation, combined cycle conversion technology 0 0 0 Other 0 0 0 Inlet fogging (additional option) 0.47 1 0.47
0 0 1
Bioenergy Power Production Method
Dedicated Energy Crops 1 Dedicated energy crops - rapeseed - gasification 2 Dedicated energy crops - sugarcane - gasification 3 Dedicated energy crops - Sugar beet - gasification 4 Dedicated energy crops - Corn - gasification 5 Dedicated energy crops - Wheat - gasification 6 Dedicated energy crops - rapeseed - gasification - syngas scrubbing 7 Dedicated energy crops - sugarcane - gasification - syngas scrubbing 8 Dedicated energy crops - Sugar beet - gasification - syngas scrubbing 9 Dedicated energy crops - Corn - gasification - syngas scrubbing 10 Dedicated energy crops - Wheat - gasification - syngas scrubbing 11 Dedicated energy crops - rapeseed - Biomass-based steam plant 12 Dedicated energy crops - sugarcane - Biomass-based steam plant 13 Dedicated energy crops - Sugar beet - Biomass-based steam plant 14 Dedicated energy crops - Corn - Biomass-based steam plant 15 Dedicated energy crops - Wheat - Biomass-based steam plant 16 Dedicated energy crops - rapeseed - Improved biomass-based steam plant 17 Dedicated energy crops - sugarcane - Improved biomass-based steam plant 18 Dedicated energy crops - Sugar beet - Improved biomass-based steam plant 19 Dedicated energy crops - Corn - Improved biomass-based steam plant 20 Dedicated energy crops - Wheat - Improved biomass-based steam plant Waste Products 21 Agricultural/Forestry Waste - gasification 22 Agricultural/Forestry Waste - gasification - syngas scrubbing 23 Agricultural/Forestry Waste - Biomass-based steam plant 24 Agricultural/Forestry Waste - Improved biomass-based steam plant Biogas (including landfill gas or WWTP gas - methane) 25 Biogas - Simple cycle 26 Biogas - Simple cycle with inlet fogging 27 Biogas - Combined cycle with wet cooling and inlet fogging 28 Biogas - Combined cycle with wet cooling
29 Biogas - Combined cycle with dry cooling and inlet fogging 30 Biogas - Combined cycle with dry cooling 31 Biogas - Combined cycle, once-thru cooling 32 Biogas - Steam turbine, once-thru cooling 33 Biogas - Steam turbine, wet cooling Biogas - Steam turbine, dry cooling 34 Biogas - Steam turbine, pond cooling 35 36
Notes/Assumptions
Sources Berndes, 2002 [W,C/H,L] Berndes, 2002 Data is originally all in terms of "water use [W,C/H,L] efficiency". We use the same numbers for rates Berndes, 2002 of withdrawal and consumption, assuming that [W,C/H,L] all applied water (for irrigation) is evapotranspired. Original study assumes that, for the Berndes, 2002 lower numbers (more efficient systems) waste [W,C/H,L] byproducts and harvest residues are used to Berndes, 2002 generate electricity. [W,C/H,L] USDOE/EPRI, 1997 Assumes a 23% specified efficiency and a HHV and Berndes, 2001 at 20 Gj/Mg [W,C/H,L] USDOE/EPRI, 1997 Assumes a 34% specified efficiency and a HHV and Berndes, 2001 of 20 GJ/Mg [W,C/H,L] Includes boiler feed water requirements but NOT wet scrubbing. Steam from the steam cycle is injected into the gasifier Asumes a specified efficiency of 36% and a HHV of 20 GJ/Mg. For methanol. Hydrogen values are much higher.
USDOE/EPRI, 1997 and Berndes, 2002 [W,C/H,L] Katofsky, 1993 and Berndes, 2002 [W,C/H,L]
Notes/Assumptions
Sources
Assumes a 500 MW plant. Analysis assumes that water requirements for landfill gas facilities are comparable to those for conventional natural gas facilities. All data are taken from conventional natural gas facilities.
Maulbetsch 2006, EPRI, CATF et al. 2003
Unlike traditional natural gas, we assume no processing water needs (because landfill gas facilities often produce additional water by drying the captured gas). The processing water needed to produce energy from conventional natural gas is used in the pumping process. We assume no transportation costs, as energy is typically produced on-site (with landfill gas generation). Maulbetsch 2006
Withdrawal Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 360.3 630.4 133.4 558.4 256.4 677.4 263.4 1250.4 144.4 1260.4 360.4 633.6 133.5 561.6 256.5 680.6 263.5 1253.6 144.5 1263.6 362.5 632.5 135.5 560.5 258.5 679.5 265.5 1252.5 146.5 1262.5 361.8 631.8 134.8 559.8 257.8 678.8 264.8 1251.8 145.8 1261.8
Consumptive Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 360.3 630.4 133.4 558.4 256.4 677.4 263.4 1250.4 144.4 1260.4 360.3 630.4 133.4 558.4 256.4 677.4 263.4 1250.4 144.4 1260.4 362.5 632.5 135.5 560.5 258.5 679.5 265.5 1252.5 146.5 1262.5 361.8 631.8 134.8 559.8 257.8 678.8 264.8 1251.8 145.8 1261.8
0.36 0.47 2.52 1.80
0.36 3.60 2.52 1.80
0.36 0.36 2.52 1.80
0.36 0.36 2.52 1.80
0.08 0.56 1.34 0.87
0.08 0.69 1.48 0.87
0.08 0.56 1.15 0.68
0.08 0.69 1.29 0.68
0.62 0.15 9.08 75.70 1.14 0.15 1.14
0.76 0.15 75.70 189.25 3.03 0.15 2.27
0.47 0.00 0.38 1.14 0.91 0.00 1.14
0.61 0.00 0.38 1.14 2.42 0.00 1.82
Water Requirements for Coal Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh COAL Item Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High Consumption m^3/MWh Low High Notes/Assumptions
Sources [CH] (Gleick 1994) [CL] Set to Match WL [WL]Calculation based on (Gleick 1994) and NMA conversion [WH] Coal Text Book [C](Gleick 1994) [WL]Calculation based on (Gleick 1994) and NMA conversion [WH] Coal Text Book [W] (Gleick 1994) from (Chan et al. 2006) [CH](Gleick 1994) from (Chan et al. 2006) [WL]Coal Textbook [WH]Set to match CH [CL]Set to match WL [W] & [C] (Liu 2002) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] (Ziemkiewicz) [C]Hypothesis bc I can't find numbers
Surface Mining
0.01
0.49
0.01
0.05
Choose consumption higher value if revegetating 6150 kWh/ton of coal mined
Underground Mining Coal Washing
0.45 0.01
0.45 0.02
0.03 0.00
0.21 0.00 80% of eastern and interior coal is washed
Pulverized Slurry Line Log Slurry Line IGCC (Gasification) IGCC Makeup Water (ex. Cooling) IGCC Process Losses IGCC Flue Gas Water Losses IGCC Wet Cooling IGCC Pond Cooling
0.03 0.01 0.18 0.15
0.90 0.27 0.24 0.39
0.03 0.01 0.09 0.09 0.29 2.30 0.74
0.90 0.27 Saves up to 70% water of traditional slurry. 0.13 500 MW plant 0.13 0.40 2.79 1.18
2.30 0.74
2.79 1.48
PC Combustion PC Makeup Water (ex. Cooling) PC Process Losses PC Flue Gas Water Losses PC Flue Gas Desulfurization
0.14 0.01
0.16 0.02
0.00 0.03 0.36 0.24
0.00 600MW pulverized coal plant. 0.03 0.41 0.40
0.24
0.40
PC Wet Cooling PC Once-Through Cooling PC Pond Cooling
3.71
4.16
3.71 1.14 1.14
75.70 189.25 1.14 2.27
3.71 Numbers are thermoelectic averages 600MW pulverized coal plant. Uses 35% less water when paired with an IGCC 1.14 plant 1.82 Numbers from EPRI are thermoelectric averages
[CH] (Feeley et al. 2005) [CL] (EPRI 2002) [WH] (Feeley et al. 2005) [WL] (EPRI 2002) [W] (Ziemkiewicz) [C]Hypothesis bc I can't find numbers [C]&[W] (EPRI 2002)
PC Hybrid Wet-Dry Cooling
0.38
3.63
0.36
Results in about 50% less water consumption than a conventional closed-loop wet cooling system Consumption is 20-80% of recirculating wet cooling Uses 35% less water when paired with an IGCC 3.33 plant [C] (EPRI 2002) Dry cooling cuts consumption by 95% (Compared to wet cooling) Uses 35% less water when paired with an IGCC 0.21 plant (Queensland Govt DOE) Same as direct cooling Uses 35% less water when paired with an IGCC 0.21 plant N/A
PC Direct Dry Cooling PC Indirect Dry Cooling
0.09 0.09
0.23 0.23
0.09 0.09
Water Requirements for Geothermal Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh GEOTHERMAL Item Injection from external sources, water dominated system Injection from external sources, steam dominated system Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High Consumption m^3/MWh Low High
0
3.49
0
3.49
0
3.49
0
3.49
Cooling, once through
0 Cooling, wet recirculating (cooling towers) 0
54 17.03
0 0
0.25 17.03
Cooling, dry
0 FOR CALIFORNIA CASE STUDY, MORE SPECIFIC NUMBERS: Cooling, Imperial Valley Cooling, other locations in California
0
0
0
7.7 0
14.1 0.02
7.7 0
14.1 0.02
Geothermal Power Production Method Withdrawal Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 0 57.49 0 3.49 0 57.49 0 3.49 0 20.52 0 20.52 Consumptive Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 0 3.74 0 3.49 0 3.74 0 3.49 0 20.52 0 20.52
Steam dominated, once through cooling Steam dominated, dry cooling Water dominated, once through cooling Water dominated, dry cooling Steam dominated, wet recirculating cooling Water dominated, wet recirculating cooling
Special notes: We are no longer considering geothermal fluid or steam in this spreadsheet.
Notes/Assumptions
Sources
[W, C]Sass and Priest 2002, Dept of High number reflects the only external Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources injection program of its kind, in the Geysers 2005 [W, C]Sass and Priest 2002, Dept of High number reflects the only external Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources injection program of its kind, in the Geysers 2005
WL, CL from Bagnore, Italy; WH from Nesjavellir, Iceland. CH from Salton Sea Unit 6. The Iceland plant disposes of wastewater into groundwater flowing to a lake; maybe that explains the high. I believe it's like a once-through cooling system. Gleick says up to 15 m3/MWh if you need [WH]Hagedoorn 2006, [CH] Adams et external water. The Geysers requires no al. 2005 external water for cooling (Gleick 1994). [WL]/[CL]Hagedoorn 2006 [WL]/[CL]Adams et al. 2005, [WH]/ [CH]Charles et al. 2006 Kagel mentions no numbers here; I am assuming the water required is negligible. If fossil plants withdraw such little water for dry [WH]/[CH]Kagel et al. 2005, USDOE cooling, I am assuming that small amount 2006 can be easily met with geothermal fluid [WL]/[CL]Kagel et al. 2005, USDOE (which we aren't counting). 2006
Water Requirements for Hydroelectric Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh Hydroelectric Item Evaporative Losses, <25 MW plant Evaporative Losses, >25 MW plant Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High 208.8 162 208.8 162.0 Consumption m^3/MWh Low High 0.18 0.036
Average water Sources Notes/Assumptions withdrawa l statistics 14.4 for that Gleick 1992 [W,C/H,L] size 2.520 facility. Gleick 1992 [W,C/H,L]
Hydroelectric Power Production Method
Withdrawal Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 208.8 208.8 208.8 208.8 162.0 162.0 162.0 162.0
1 Reservoir and Dam, < 25 MW 2 Reservoir and Dam, < 25 MW 3 Reservoir and Dam, > 25 MW 4 Reservoir and Dam, > 25 MW
capacity - Dam Height < Gross Static Head capacity - Dam Height > Gross Static Head capacity - Dam Height < Gross Static Head capacity - Dam Height > Gross Static Head
5 "Run of River" Facility
0
0
6 Facilities in aqueducts 7
0
0
Gleick 1992 [W,C/H,L] Gleick 1992 [W,C/H,L]
Consumptive Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 0.18 82.7 1.94 209 0.04 122 3.6 162 Assumes that "run of river" facilities do not impound water, increasing rates 0 of evaporation Assumes that these facilities do not increase rates of evaporation above existing 0 rates.
0
0
Water Requirements for Natural Gas Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh NATURAL GAS Item Simple Cycle Combined cycle, wet cooling Combined cycle, dry cooling Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Steam turbine, once-thru cooling Steam turbine, wet cooling Steam turbine, dry cooling Steam turbine, pond cooling Inlet fogging (additional option) Mining, combined cycle conversion technology Mining, Simple cycle conversion technology Transportation, combined cycle conversion technology Transportation, simple cycle conversion technology Other (hotel load) 0.000 0.360 0.000 0.360 Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High 0.084 0.084 0.871 0.871 0.151 0.151 9.084 75.700 Consumption m^3/MWh Low High 0.084 0.084 0.681 0.681 0.000 0.000 0.379 1.136 0.908 0.000 1.136 0.473 0.036 0.379 1.136 2.422 0.000 1.817 0.606 0.036
75.700 189.251 1.136 3.028 0.151 0.151 1.136 2.271 0.473 0.036 0.606 0.036
0.060 0.018
0.060 0.018
0.060 0.018
0.060 0.018
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.030
Natural Gas Power Production Method Withdrawal Water Consumptive Requirement Water Requirement (m3/MWh) (m3/MWh) Low High Low High 0.116 0.116 0.116 0.116 0.589 0.722 0.589 0.722 1.376 0.903 0.657 0.184 1.509 0.903 0.789 0.184 1.187 0.714 0.506 0.032 0.411 1.528 1.319 0.714 0.638 0.032 0.411 1.528
Simple cycle, no inlet fogging Simple cycle, inlet fogging Combined cycle, wet cooling, inlet fogging Combined cycle, wet cooling, no inlet fogging Combined cycle, dry cooling, inlet fogging Combined cycle, dry cooling, no inlet fogging Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Steam turbine, once-thru cooling
9.116 75.733 76.093 189.643
Steam turbine, wet cooling Steam turbine, dry cooling Steam turbine, pond cooling
1.528 0.544 1.528
3.420 0.544 2.663
1.301 0.392 1.528
2.815 0.392 2.209
Assumptions
Source
Assumes a 500 MW plant
Maulbetsch 2006, EPRI, CATF et al. 2003
Maulbetsch 2006 Assumes a conversion efficiency of 60% for combined cycle plants Assumes a conversion efficiency of 36% (from thermal to electric Joules), source - Gleick (1994) Assumes a conversion efficiency of 60% for combined cycle plants Assumes a conversion efficiency of 36% (from thermal to electric Joules), source - Gleick (1994) Gleick says 0.36, but I use 0 in other places to avoid mismatching sources.
Water Requirements for Nuclear Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh NUCLEAR Item Surface Uranium Mining Underground Uranium Mining Withdrawal Consumption m^3/MWh m^3/MWh Low High Low High Notes/Assumptions 0.2323 0.2323 0 0 only for surface mining 0.0023 0.0023 0
Sources [W] & [C]: Gleick 1993
Processing once-thru cooling
0.75
0.91
0.45
0 only for underground mining [W] & [C]: Gleick 1993 processing includes: milling, conversion, enrichment, fuel fabrication, fuel 0.54 reprocessing [W] & [C]: Gleick 1993 for BWR assuming once5.0350 through cooling [W]: EPRI 2002; [C/L]: Hoffman et al. 2004; [C/H] Pace University Environmental Law Center 1990; [W/L]:EPRI 2002; [W/H]:Hoffman et al. 2004; [C/H]:EPRI 2002; [C/L]: Hoffman et al. 2004
94.6253 BWR natural draft wet cooling tower closed cycle cooling pond, lake, or reservoir once-thru cooling PWR natural draft wet cooling tower closed cycle cooling pond, lake, or reservoir
###
0.3785
3.0280
5.6775
1.5140
5.6775
2.7252 94.63
4.1635 227.1
2.7252 0.3785
2.7252 1.5140
[W] & [C]: EPRI 2002 [W] EPRI 2002; [C/L]: Hoffman et al. 2004; [C/H]: EPRI 2002 [W/L]:EPRI 2002; [W/H]:Hoffman et al. 2004; [C/H]:EPRI 2002; [C/L]: Hoffman et al. 2004 [W] EPRI 2002; [C/L]: EPRI 2002; [C/H]: Pace University Environmental Law Center 1990
3.03
5.68
1.5140
5.6775
2.7252
4.16
2.7252
3.2330
Water Requirements for Oil Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh OIL Item Oil Shale Mining - Direct Aboveground Retorting (AGR) Oil Shale Mining - Indirect AGR Oil Shale Mining - Modified In-situ (MIS)/AGR Oil Shale Mining - Modified In-situ (MIS) Oil Shale Processing - Direct Aboveground Retorting (AGR) Oil Shale Processing - Indirect AGR Oil Shale Processing - Modified In-situ (MIS)/AGR Oil Shale Processing - Modified In-situ (MIS) Oil Shale (Other) - Direct Aboveground Retorting (AGR) Oil Shale (Other) - Indirect AGR Oil Shale (Other) - Modified In-situ (MIS)/AGR Oil Shale (Other) - Modified In-situ (MIS) Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Combined cycle, wet cooling Combined cycle, dry cooling Steam turbine, once-thru cooling Steam turbine, wet cooling Steam turbine, dry cooling Steam turbine, pond cooling Drilling Refining Other (hotel load) Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High 0.028 0.035 0.013 0.020 0.088 0.137 0.121 0.100 0.077 0.181 0.072 0.077 0.045 0.047 0.014 0.020 0.111 0.201 0.145 0.100 0.121 0.276 0.094 0.077 Consumption m^3/MWh Low High 0.028 0.035 0.013 0.020 0.088 0.137 0.121 0.100 0.077 0.181 0.072 0.077 0.379 0.681 0.000 1.136 0.908 0.000 1.136 0.01 0.09 0.25 0.045 0.047 0.014 0.020 0.111 0.201 0.145 0.100 0.121 0.276 0.094 0.077 0.379 0.681 0.000 1.136 2.422 0.000 1.817 32.04 0.43 0.25
9.084 75.700 0.871 0.871 0.151 0.151 75.700 189.251 1.136 3.028 0.151 0.151 1.136 2.271 0.01 0.09 0.25 32.04 0.43 0.25
Oil Power Production Method Withdrawal Water Consumptive Water Requirement Requirement (m3/MWh) (m3/MWh) Low High Low High 9.437 108.424 0.731 33.103 1.223 33.595 1.034 33.405 0.504 32.875 0.353 32.724 76.053 221.975 1.488 33.860 1.488 35.752 1.261 35.146 0.504 32.875 0.353 32.724 1.488 34.995 1.488 34.541 9.278 75.978 0.572 0.656
Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Combined cycle, wet cooling Combined cycle, dry cooling Steam turbine, once-thru cooling Steam turbine, wet cooling Steam turbine, dry cooling Steam turbine, pond cooling Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle, once-thru cooling
Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle, wet cooling Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle - Dry cooling Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - Once-through cooling Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - wet cooling Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - pond cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle, wet cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle - Dry cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - Once-through cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - wet cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - pond cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Combined cycle, wet cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Combined cycle Dry cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Steam turbine Once-through cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Steam turbine wet cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Steam turbine pond cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Combined cycle, oncethru cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Combined cycle, wet cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Combined cycle - Dry cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Steam turbine - Oncethrough cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Steam turbine - wet cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Steam turbine - pond cooling
1.064
1.148
0.875 0.194 1.329 1.102 1.329 0.732 1.035 0.353 1.489 1.262 1.489 0.585 0.888 0.206 1.342 1.115 1.342 0.575 0.878 0.196 1.332 1.105 1.332
0.959 0.278 1.413 2.700 2.095 0.902 1.205 0.524 1.659 2.946 2.340 0.631 0.934 0.252 1.388 2.675 2.069 0.575 0.878 0.196 1.332 2.619 2.013
0.345 0.429 75.894 189.528 1.329 1.329 9.438 1.224 0.505 3.306 2.549 76.224 1.394 0.675
76.054 189.774 1.489 1.489 9.291 1.077 0.358 3.552 2.795 75.953 1.123 0.404
75.907 189.503 1.342 1.342 9.280 1.067 0.348 3.280 2.523 75.897 1.067 0.348
75.897 189.447 1.332 1.332 3.224 2.467
Notes/Assumptions All calculations assume one barrel of crude oil (42 gallons) has an energy capacity of 1700 kWh. Assumes a 50,000 bbl/day facility. The cited reference describes all water used as "consumed water" and does not distinguish from "withdrawn water". The quality of the water may, indeed, mean that it is effectively consumed; however, there may be some opportunity for reclaiming water. We do not tackle that question. "Other" uses include water for disposal and revegetation, dust control during extraction, plant utilities, and onsite power needs.
Sources
Emerging Issues for Fossil Energy and Water, 2006 [W,C/H,L]
Analysis assumes that oil cooling is the EPRI, CATF same as natural gas cooling. et al. 2003
Gleick 1994 Gleick 1994 Gleick 1994
average 58.931 17.409 16.690 149.014 18.620 16.690 18.242 42.628
1.106 0.387 132.711 2.317 1.939 42.831 1.309 0.590 132.914 2.520 2.142 42.622 1.100 0.381 132.705 2.311 1.933 42.589 1.067 0.348 132.672 2.278 1.900
Water Requirements for Solar Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh SOLAR Item Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High Consumption m^3/MWh Low High
Notes/Assumptions
Sources Stoddard, et al.2006 [W,C/L]; The Last Straw [W,C/H] Stoddard, et al.2006 [W,C/H,L] Solar Paces 2007 [W,C/L]; Stoddard et al. 2006 [W,C/H] The Last Straw; Stoddard et al. [W,C/H,L]
Parabolic Trough Plant - wet cooling Parabolic Dish-Engine - dry cooling Power Tower - wet cooling PV - Distributed (Rooftop) Systems PV - Large Centralized Plants PV - Concentrating PV Systems
2.80 0 2.40 0 0 0
2.87 0 2.80 0 0 0
2.80 0 2.40 0 0 0
Withdrawn is equivilant to consumed when withdrawn numbers are not 2.87 available. 0 No cooling required. 2.80 0 No cooling required. 0 No cooling required. 0 No cooling required.
Parabolic Trough Plant washing Parabolic Dish-Engine washing
0.14 0
0.27 0
0.14 0
High number found by subtracting the Stoddard, et al.2006 [W,C/L], cooling water amt from the cooling and Direct Communication, Mike process water amt listed for this Roverson, Kramer Junction 0.27 technology in the Last Straw [W,C/L], Last Straw [W,C/H] 0 Stoddard, et al.2006 [W,C/H,L] Assumed to be roughly equal to washing needs of a Parabolic Trough 0.14 plant as both have large mirror fields. Number for PV washing requirments used for both large plants and 0.11 distributed gen (rooftop). Number for PV washing requirments used for both large plants and 0.11 distributed gen (rooftop). 0 The Last Straw; AWEA Website 2006
Power Tower washing PV - Distributed (Rooftop) Systems washing
0
0.14
0
0 PV - Large Centralized Plant washing PV - Concentrating PV Systems washing 0 0
0.11
0
0.11 0
0 0
AWEA Website 2006 Stoddard, et al.2006
Solar Power Production Method
Withdrawal Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High CSP - Parabolic Trough System 2.94 3.14 CSP - Parabolic Dish-Engine System 0 0 CSP - Power Tower Plant 2.540 2.800 0.0038 0.114 PV - Distributed (Rooftop) Systems 0.000 0.114 PV - Large Centralized Plant PV - Concentrating PV Systems 0 0
Consumptive Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 2.94 3.14 0 0 2.540 2.800 0.004 0.114 0.000 0.114 0 0
Water Requirements for Wind Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh WIND Item Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High Consumption m^3/MWh Low High Notes/Assumptions If the wind turbines are never cleaned, then the withdrawal and consumption 0 equals zero
Sources [W/L]: van Dam; [W/H]: AWEA 2006; [C/L]: van Dam; [C/H]: AWEA 2006
Cleaning medium sized wind farms
0
0
0
Cleaning large sized wind farms
0
0
0
If the wind turbines are never cleaned, then the withdrawal and consumption equals zero Wind farms can operate at 30% of nameplate capacity If washed, turbines are washed 3 [W/L]: van Dam; [W/H]: J. Harris times/year 2006; [C/L]: van Dam; [C/H]: J. 0 Each turbine uses 40 gallons per washing Harris 2006
Wind Power Production Method
Withdrawal Consumptive Water Water Requirement Requirement (m3/MWh) (m3/MWh) Low High Low High 0.0000 0.0038 0.0000 0.0038 0.0000 0.0025 0.0000 0.0025
Medium sized wind farm Large sized wind farm
Conversion of Units Instructions: insert the value you have in the left box, and the coversion will be done automatically to right box Volume/energy unit 130 gal/kWh 65 gal/MWh 54 liters/kWh 1.16 ft^3/MWs ### gal/MWd 195 Mg/GJ 2.62E-06 ac-ft/kWh 0 m^3/J 70 acre-ft/MWe = = = = = = = = 492.05 m^3/MWh Energy 2.46E-01 m^3/MWh 54 m^3/MWh 118.4 m^3/MWh 205.35 m^3/MWh Volume 7.02E+02 m^3/MWh 3.23E+00 m^3/MWh 9.00E-02 m^3/MWh 8.64E+01 m^3/kW 1.62E+02 m^3/MWh 0.2323 m^3/MWh 1.20E-12 m^3/J 0.53 kWh/m^3 0.53 kWh/m^3 1 1 1 1234 1 1 1 1 1.00E+12 1 1.00E+18 1 barrel crude oil 1 barrel crude oil 1
Quick reference/conversio 1
45 km^3/10^18 J = 64.52 m^3/10^12 J 4.32E-06 m^3/kWh = =
2000 kWh/megagallon = 652 kWh/af
matically to right box Quick reference/conversion MW kWh J GJ J 1 barrel crude oil 1 barrel crude oil J = = = = = = = = 1000 kW 3.60E+06 Joules 2.78E+05 kWh 277.8 kWh 2.78E+11 kWh 5.80E+06 Btu 1.70E+03 kWh 2.78E-07 kWh 1000 liters 264.2 gallons (U.S.) 35.31 ft^3 1 acre-foot 1000000000 m^3 1 m^3 378.54 m^3
m^3 = m^3 = m^3 = m^3 = km^3 = Mg (Million grams) = megagallon =
Key for Reading Spreadsheets
At the top of each spreadsheet, the water requirements for each step in the generation process are listed. At the bottom of each spreadsheet, different technological options are combined and total estimates of water requirements are provided. Water inputs for all energy sources (EXCEPT coal) are color coded as follows:
Agriculture Mining Transportation Processing Cooling Cleaning Evaporative Losses (hydroelectric facilities only) Other
References and sources are identified with their numbers using the following code:
W= Withdrawal C= Consumption H= High figure L= Low figure
neration process re combined and
wing code:
Water Requirements for Bioenergy Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh BIOENERGY Item Agriculture, Rapeseed Agriculture, Sugarcane Agriculture, Sugar Beet Agriculture, Corn Agriculture, Wheat Biomass-based steam plant Improved biomass-based steam plant Gasification-based, combined cycle generation 0.3600 0.3600 0.3600 0.3600 Quench feed water for wet scrubbing of syngas (exiting gasifier) Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High 360 133 256 263 144 630 558 677 1250 1260 Consumption m^3/MWh Low High 360 133 256 263 144 630 558 677 1250 1260
2.5198 2.5198 2.5198 2.5198
1.7999 1.7999 1.7999 1.7999
0.1080 3.2400
Withdrawal Consumption m^3/MWh m^3/MWh Item Low High Low High Simple Cycle 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 Combined cycle, wet cooling 0.87 0.87 0.68 0.68 Combined cycle, dry cooling 0.15 0.15 0 0 Combined cycle, once-thru cooling 75.7 9.08 0.38 0.38 BIOGAS Steam turbine, once-thru cooling 189.25 75.7 Steam turbine, wet cooling 1.14 3.03 Steam turbine, dry cooling 0.15 0.15 Steam turbine, pond cooling 1.14 2.27 1.14 0.91 0 1.14 1.14 2.42 0 1.82
Mining, combined cycle conversion technology 0 0
0
0
Transportation, combined cycle conversion technology 0 0 0 Other 0 0 0 Inlet fogging (additional option) 0.47 1 0.47
0 0 1
Bioenergy Power Production Method
Dedicated Energy Crops 1 Dedicated energy crops - rapeseed - gasification 2 Dedicated energy crops - sugarcane - gasification 3 Dedicated energy crops - Sugar beet - gasification 4 Dedicated energy crops - Corn - gasification 5 Dedicated energy crops - Wheat - gasification 6 Dedicated energy crops - rapeseed - gasification - syngas scrubbing 7 Dedicated energy crops - sugarcane - gasification - syngas scrubbing 8 Dedicated energy crops - Sugar beet - gasification - syngas scrubbing 9 Dedicated energy crops - Corn - gasification - syngas scrubbing 10 Dedicated energy crops - Wheat - gasification - syngas scrubbing 11 Dedicated energy crops - rapeseed - Biomass-based steam plant 12 Dedicated energy crops - sugarcane - Biomass-based steam plant 13 Dedicated energy crops - Sugar beet - Biomass-based steam plant 14 Dedicated energy crops - Corn - Biomass-based steam plant 15 Dedicated energy crops - Wheat - Biomass-based steam plant 16 Dedicated energy crops - rapeseed - Improved biomass-based steam plant 17 Dedicated energy crops - sugarcane - Improved biomass-based steam plant 18 Dedicated energy crops - Sugar beet - Improved biomass-based steam plant 19 Dedicated energy crops - Corn - Improved biomass-based steam plant 20 Dedicated energy crops - Wheat - Improved biomass-based steam plant Waste Products 21 Agricultural/Forestry Waste - gasification 22 Agricultural/Forestry Waste - gasification - syngas scrubbing 23 Agricultural/Forestry Waste - Biomass-based steam plant 24 Agricultural/Forestry Waste - Improved biomass-based steam plant Biogas (including landfill gas or WWTP gas - methane) 25 Biogas - Simple cycle 26 Biogas - Simple cycle with inlet fogging 27 Biogas - Combined cycle with wet cooling and inlet fogging 28 Biogas - Combined cycle with wet cooling
29 Biogas - Combined cycle with dry cooling and inlet fogging 30 Biogas - Combined cycle with dry cooling 31 Biogas - Combined cycle, once-thru cooling 32 Biogas - Steam turbine, once-thru cooling 33 Biogas - Steam turbine, wet cooling Biogas - Steam turbine, dry cooling 34 Biogas - Steam turbine, pond cooling 35 36
Notes/Assumptions
Sources Berndes, 2002 [W,C/H,L] Berndes, 2002 Data is originally all in terms of "water use [W,C/H,L] efficiency". We use the same numbers for rates Berndes, 2002 of withdrawal and consumption, assuming that [W,C/H,L] all applied water (for irrigation) is evapotranspired. Original study assumes that, for the Berndes, 2002 lower numbers (more efficient systems) waste [W,C/H,L] byproducts and harvest residues are used to Berndes, 2002 generate electricity. [W,C/H,L] USDOE/EPRI, 1997 Assumes a 23% specified efficiency and a HHV and Berndes, 2001 at 20 Gj/Mg [W,C/H,L] USDOE/EPRI, 1997 Assumes a 34% specified efficiency and a HHV and Berndes, 2001 of 20 GJ/Mg [W,C/H,L] Includes boiler feed water requirements but NOT wet scrubbing. Steam from the steam cycle is injected into the gasifier Asumes a specified efficiency of 36% and a HHV of 20 GJ/Mg. For methanol. Hydrogen values are much higher.
USDOE/EPRI, 1997 and Berndes, 2002 [W,C/H,L] Katofsky, 1993 and Berndes, 2002 [W,C/H,L]
Notes/Assumptions
Sources
Assumes a 500 MW plant. Analysis assumes that water requirements for landfill gas facilities are comparable to those for conventional natural gas facilities. All data are taken from conventional natural gas facilities.
Maulbetsch 2006, EPRI, CATF et al. 2003
Unlike traditional natural gas, we assume no processing water needs (because landfill gas facilities often produce additional water by drying the captured gas). The processing water needed to produce energy from conventional natural gas is used in the pumping process. We assume no transportation costs, as energy is typically produced on-site (with landfill gas generation). Maulbetsch 2006
Withdrawal Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 360.3 630.4 133.4 558.4 256.4 677.4 263.4 1250.4 144.4 1260.4 360.4 633.6 133.5 561.6 256.5 680.6 263.5 1253.6 144.5 1263.6 362.5 632.5 135.5 560.5 258.5 679.5 265.5 1252.5 146.5 1262.5 361.8 631.8 134.8 559.8 257.8 678.8 264.8 1251.8 145.8 1261.8
Consumptive Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 360.3 630.4 133.4 558.4 256.4 677.4 263.4 1250.4 144.4 1260.4 360.3 630.4 133.4 558.4 256.4 677.4 263.4 1250.4 144.4 1260.4 362.5 632.5 135.5 560.5 258.5 679.5 265.5 1252.5 146.5 1262.5 361.8 631.8 134.8 559.8 257.8 678.8 264.8 1251.8 145.8 1261.8
0.36 0.47 2.52 1.80
0.36 3.60 2.52 1.80
0.36 0.36 2.52 1.80
0.36 0.36 2.52 1.80
0.08 0.56 1.34 0.87
0.08 0.69 1.48 0.87
0.08 0.56 1.15 0.68
0.08 0.69 1.29 0.68
0.62 0.15 9.08 75.70 1.14 0.15 1.14
0.76 0.15 75.70 189.25 3.03 0.15 2.27
0.47 0.00 0.38 1.14 0.91 0.00 1.14
0.61 0.00 0.38 1.14 2.42 0.00 1.82
Water Requirements for Coal Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh COAL Item Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High Consumption m^3/MWh Low High Notes/Assumptions
Sources [CH] (Gleick 1994) [CL] Set to Match WL [WL]Calculation based on (Gleick 1994) and NMA conversion [WH] Coal Text Book [C](Gleick 1994) [WL]Calculation based on (Gleick 1994) and NMA conversion [WH] Coal Text Book [W] (Gleick 1994) from (Chan et al. 2006) [CH](Gleick 1994) from (Chan et al. 2006) [WL]Coal Textbook [WH]Set to match CH [CL]Set to match WL [W] & [C] (Liu 2002) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] & [C] (Klett 2005) [W] (Ziemkiewicz) [C]Hypothesis bc I can't find numbers
Surface Mining
0.01
0.49
0.01
0.05
Choose consumption higher value if revegetating 6150 kWh/ton of coal mined
Underground Mining Coal Washing
0.45 0.01
0.45 0.02
0.03 0.00
0.21 0.00 80% of eastern and interior coal is washed
Pulverized Slurry Line Log Slurry Line IGCC (Gasification) IGCC Makeup Water (ex. Cooling) IGCC Process Losses IGCC Flue Gas Water Losses IGCC Wet Cooling IGCC Pond Cooling
0.03 0.01 0.18 0.15
0.90 0.27 0.24 0.39
0.03 0.01 0.09 0.09 0.29 2.30 0.74
0.90 0.27 Saves up to 70% water of traditional slurry. 0.13 500 MW plant 0.13 0.40 2.79 1.18
2.30 0.74
2.79 1.48
PC Combustion PC Makeup Water (ex. Cooling) PC Process Losses PC Flue Gas Water Losses PC Flue Gas Desulfurization
0.14 0.01
0.16 0.02
0.00 0.03 0.36 0.24
0.00 600MW pulverized coal plant. 0.03 0.41 0.40
0.24
0.40
PC Wet Cooling PC Once-Through Cooling PC Pond Cooling
3.71
4.16
3.71 1.14 1.14
75.70 189.25 1.14 2.27
3.71 Numbers are thermoelectic averages 600MW pulverized coal plant. Uses 35% less water when paired with an IGCC 1.14 plant 1.82 Numbers from EPRI are thermoelectric averages
[CH] (Feeley et al. 2005) [CL] (EPRI 2002) [WH] (Feeley et al. 2005) [WL] (EPRI 2002) [W] (Ziemkiewicz) [C]Hypothesis bc I can't find numbers [C]&[W] (EPRI 2002)
PC Hybrid Wet-Dry Cooling
0.38
3.63
0.36
Results in about 50% less water consumption than a conventional closed-loop wet cooling system Consumption is 20-80% of recirculating wet cooling Uses 35% less water when paired with an IGCC 3.33 plant [C] (EPRI 2002) Dry cooling cuts consumption by 95% (Compared to wet cooling) Uses 35% less water when paired with an IGCC 0.21 plant (Queensland Govt DOE) Same as direct cooling Uses 35% less water when paired with an IGCC 0.21 plant N/A
PC Direct Dry Cooling PC Indirect Dry Cooling
0.09 0.09
0.23 0.23
0.09 0.09
Water Requirements for Geothermal Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh GEOTHERMAL Item Injection from external sources, water dominated system Injection from external sources, steam dominated system Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High Consumption m^3/MWh Low High
0
3.49
0
3.49
0
3.49
0
3.49
Cooling, once through
0 Cooling, wet recirculating (cooling towers) 0
54 17.03
0 0
0.25 17.03
Cooling, dry
0 FOR CALIFORNIA CASE STUDY, MORE SPECIFIC NUMBERS: Cooling, Imperial Valley Cooling, other locations in California
0
0
0
7.7 0
14.1 0.02
7.7 0
14.1 0.02
Geothermal Power Production Method Withdrawal Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 0 57.49 0 3.49 0 57.49 0 3.49 0 20.52 0 20.52 Consumptive Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 0 3.74 0 3.49 0 3.74 0 3.49 0 20.52 0 20.52
Steam dominated, once through cooling Steam dominated, dry cooling Water dominated, once through cooling Water dominated, dry cooling Steam dominated, wet recirculating cooling Water dominated, wet recirculating cooling
Special notes: We are no longer considering geothermal fluid or steam in this spreadsheet.
Notes/Assumptions
Sources
[W, C]Sass and Priest 2002, Dept of High number reflects the only external Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources injection program of its kind, in the Geysers 2005 [W, C]Sass and Priest 2002, Dept of High number reflects the only external Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources injection program of its kind, in the Geysers 2005
WL, CL from Bagnore, Italy; WH from Nesjavellir, Iceland. CH from Salton Sea Unit 6. The Iceland plant disposes of wastewater into groundwater flowing to a lake; maybe that explains the high. I believe it's like a once-through cooling system. Gleick says up to 15 m3/MWh if you need [WH]Hagedoorn 2006, [CH] Adams et external water. The Geysers requires no al. 2005 external water for cooling (Gleick 1994). [WL]/[CL]Hagedoorn 2006 [WL]/[CL]Adams et al. 2005, [WH]/ [CH]Charles et al. 2006 Kagel mentions no numbers here; I am assuming the water required is negligible. If fossil plants withdraw such little water for dry [WH]/[CH]Kagel et al. 2005, USDOE cooling, I am assuming that small amount 2006 can be easily met with geothermal fluid [WL]/[CL]Kagel et al. 2005, USDOE (which we aren't counting). 2006
Water Requirements for Hydroelectric Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh Hydroelectric Item Evaporative Losses, <25 MW plant Evaporative Losses, >25 MW plant Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High 208.8 162 208.8 162.0 Consumption m^3/MWh Low High 0.18 0.036
Average water Sources Notes/Assumptions withdrawa l statistics 14.4 for that Gleick 1992 [W,C/H,L] size 2.520 facility. Gleick 1992 [W,C/H,L]
Hydroelectric Power Production Method
Withdrawal Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 208.8 208.8 208.8 208.8 162.0 162.0 162.0 162.0
1 Reservoir and Dam, < 25 MW 2 Reservoir and Dam, < 25 MW 3 Reservoir and Dam, > 25 MW 4 Reservoir and Dam, > 25 MW
capacity - Dam Height < Gross Static Head capacity - Dam Height > Gross Static Head capacity - Dam Height < Gross Static Head capacity - Dam Height > Gross Static Head
5 "Run of River" Facility
0
0
6 Facilities in aqueducts 7
0
0
Gleick 1992 [W,C/H,L] Gleick 1992 [W,C/H,L]
Consumptive Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 0.18 82.7 1.94 209 0.04 122 3.6 162 Assumes that "run of river" facilities do not impound water, increasing rates 0 of evaporation Assumes that these facilities do not increase rates of evaporation above existing 0 rates.
0
0
Water Requirements for Natural Gas Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh NATURAL GAS Item Simple Cycle Combined cycle, wet cooling Combined cycle, dry cooling Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Steam turbine, once-thru cooling Steam turbine, wet cooling Steam turbine, dry cooling Steam turbine, pond cooling Inlet fogging (additional option) Mining, combined cycle conversion technology Mining, Simple cycle conversion technology Transportation, combined cycle conversion technology Transportation, simple cycle conversion technology Other (hotel load) 0.000 0.360 0.000 0.360 Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High 0.084 0.084 0.871 0.871 0.151 0.151 9.084 75.700 Consumption m^3/MWh Low High 0.084 0.084 0.681 0.681 0.000 0.000 0.379 1.136 0.908 0.000 1.136 0.473 0.036 0.379 1.136 2.422 0.000 1.817 0.606 0.036
75.700 189.251 1.136 3.028 0.151 0.151 1.136 2.271 0.473 0.036 0.606 0.036
0.060 0.018
0.060 0.018
0.060 0.018
0.060 0.018
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.030
Natural Gas Power Production Method Withdrawal Water Consumptive Requirement Water Requirement (m3/MWh) (m3/MWh) Low High Low High 0.116 0.116 0.116 0.116 0.589 0.722 0.589 0.722 1.376 0.903 0.657 0.184 1.509 0.903 0.789 0.184 1.187 0.714 0.506 0.032 0.411 1.528 1.319 0.714 0.638 0.032 0.411 1.528
Simple cycle, no inlet fogging Simple cycle, inlet fogging Combined cycle, wet cooling, inlet fogging Combined cycle, wet cooling, no inlet fogging Combined cycle, dry cooling, inlet fogging Combined cycle, dry cooling, no inlet fogging Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Steam turbine, once-thru cooling
9.116 75.733 76.093 189.643
Steam turbine, wet cooling Steam turbine, dry cooling Steam turbine, pond cooling
1.528 0.544 1.528
3.420 0.544 2.663
1.301 0.392 1.528
2.815 0.392 2.209
Assumptions
Source
Assumes a 500 MW plant
Maulbetsch 2006, EPRI, CATF et al. 2003
Maulbetsch 2006 Assumes a conversion efficiency of 60% for combined cycle plants Assumes a conversion efficiency of 36% (from thermal to electric Joules), source - Gleick (1994) Assumes a conversion efficiency of 60% for combined cycle plants Assumes a conversion efficiency of 36% (from thermal to electric Joules), source - Gleick (1994) Gleick says 0.36, but I use 0 in other places to avoid mismatching sources.
Water Requirements for Nuclear Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh NUCLEAR Item Surface Uranium Mining Underground Uranium Mining Withdrawal Consumption m^3/MWh m^3/MWh Low High Low High Notes/Assumptions 0.2323 0.2323 0 0 only for surface mining 0.0023 0.0023 0
Sources [W] & [C]: Gleick 1993
Processing once-thru cooling
0.75
0.91
0.45
0 only for underground mining [W] & [C]: Gleick 1993 processing includes: milling, conversion, enrichment, fuel fabrication, fuel 0.54 reprocessing [W] & [C]: Gleick 1993 for BWR assuming once5.0350 through cooling [W]: EPRI 2002; [C/L]: Hoffman et al. 2004; [C/H] Pace University Environmental Law Center 1990; [W/L]:EPRI 2002; [W/H]:Hoffman et al. 2004; [C/H]:EPRI 2002; [C/L]: Hoffman et al. 2004
94.6253 BWR natural draft wet cooling tower closed cycle cooling pond, lake, or reservoir once-thru cooling PWR natural draft wet cooling tower closed cycle cooling pond, lake, or reservoir
###
0.3785
3.0280
5.6775
1.5140
5.6775
2.7252 94.63
4.1635 227.1
2.7252 0.3785
2.7252 1.5140
[W] & [C]: EPRI 2002 [W] EPRI 2002; [C/L]: Hoffman et al. 2004; [C/H]: EPRI 2002 [W/L]:EPRI 2002; [W/H]:Hoffman et al. 2004; [C/H]:EPRI 2002; [C/L]: Hoffman et al. 2004 [W] EPRI 2002; [C/L]: EPRI 2002; [C/H]: Pace University Environmental Law Center 1990
3.03
5.68
1.5140
5.6775
2.7252
4.16
2.7252
3.2330
Water Requirements for Oil Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh OIL Item Oil Shale Mining - Direct Aboveground Retorting (AGR) Oil Shale Mining - Indirect AGR Oil Shale Mining - Modified In-situ (MIS)/AGR Oil Shale Mining - Modified In-situ (MIS) Oil Shale Processing - Direct Aboveground Retorting (AGR) Oil Shale Processing - Indirect AGR Oil Shale Processing - Modified In-situ (MIS)/AGR Oil Shale Processing - Modified In-situ (MIS) Oil Shale (Other) - Direct Aboveground Retorting (AGR) Oil Shale (Other) - Indirect AGR Oil Shale (Other) - Modified In-situ (MIS)/AGR Oil Shale (Other) - Modified In-situ (MIS) Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Combined cycle, wet cooling Combined cycle, dry cooling Steam turbine, once-thru cooling Steam turbine, wet cooling Steam turbine, dry cooling Steam turbine, pond cooling Drilling Refining Other (hotel load) Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High 0.028 0.035 0.013 0.020 0.088 0.137 0.121 0.100 0.077 0.181 0.072 0.077 0.045 0.047 0.014 0.020 0.111 0.201 0.145 0.100 0.121 0.276 0.094 0.077 Consumption m^3/MWh Low High 0.028 0.035 0.013 0.020 0.088 0.137 0.121 0.100 0.077 0.181 0.072 0.077 0.379 0.681 0.000 1.136 0.908 0.000 1.136 0.01 0.09 0.25 0.045 0.047 0.014 0.020 0.111 0.201 0.145 0.100 0.121 0.276 0.094 0.077 0.379 0.681 0.000 1.136 2.422 0.000 1.817 32.04 0.43 0.25
9.084 75.700 0.871 0.871 0.151 0.151 75.700 189.251 1.136 3.028 0.151 0.151 1.136 2.271 0.01 0.09 0.25 32.04 0.43 0.25
Oil Power Production Method Withdrawal Water Consumptive Water Requirement Requirement (m3/MWh) (m3/MWh) Low High Low High 9.437 108.424 0.731 33.103 1.223 33.595 1.034 33.405 0.504 32.875 0.353 32.724 76.053 221.975 1.488 33.860 1.488 35.752 1.261 35.146 0.504 32.875 0.353 32.724 1.488 34.995 1.488 34.541 9.278 75.978 0.572 0.656
Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Combined cycle, wet cooling Combined cycle, dry cooling Steam turbine, once-thru cooling Steam turbine, wet cooling Steam turbine, dry cooling Steam turbine, pond cooling Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle, once-thru cooling
Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle, wet cooling Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle - Dry cooling Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - Once-through cooling Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - wet cooling Oil Shale - Direct Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - pond cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle, wet cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting Combined cycle - Dry cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - Once-through cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - wet cooling Oil Shale - Indirect Aboveground Retorting - Steam turbine - pond cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Combined cycle, once-thru cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Combined cycle, wet cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Combined cycle Dry cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Steam turbine Once-through cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Steam turbine wet cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ/AGR - Steam turbine pond cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Combined cycle, oncethru cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Combined cycle, wet cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Combined cycle - Dry cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Steam turbine - Oncethrough cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Steam turbine - wet cooling Oil Shale - Modified In-Situ - Steam turbine - pond cooling
1.064
1.148
0.875 0.194 1.329 1.102 1.329 0.732 1.035 0.353 1.489 1.262 1.489 0.585 0.888 0.206 1.342 1.115 1.342 0.575 0.878 0.196 1.332 1.105 1.332
0.959 0.278 1.413 2.700 2.095 0.902 1.205 0.524 1.659 2.946 2.340 0.631 0.934 0.252 1.388 2.675 2.069 0.575 0.878 0.196 1.332 2.619 2.013
0.345 0.429 75.894 189.528 1.329 1.329 9.438 1.224 0.505 3.306 2.549 76.224 1.394 0.675
76.054 189.774 1.489 1.489 9.291 1.077 0.358 3.552 2.795 75.953 1.123 0.404
75.907 189.503 1.342 1.342 9.280 1.067 0.348 3.280 2.523 75.897 1.067 0.348
75.897 189.447 1.332 1.332 3.224 2.467
Notes/Assumptions All calculations assume one barrel of crude oil (42 gallons) has an energy capacity of 1700 kWh. Assumes a 50,000 bbl/day facility. The cited reference describes all water used as "consumed water" and does not distinguish from "withdrawn water". The quality of the water may, indeed, mean that it is effectively consumed; however, there may be some opportunity for reclaiming water. We do not tackle that question. "Other" uses include water for disposal and revegetation, dust control during extraction, plant utilities, and onsite power needs.
Sources
Emerging Issues for Fossil Energy and Water, 2006 [W,C/H,L]
Analysis assumes that oil cooling is the EPRI, CATF same as natural gas cooling. et al. 2003
Gleick 1994 Gleick 1994 Gleick 1994
average 58.931 17.409 16.690 149.014 18.620 16.690 18.242 42.628
1.106 0.387 132.711 2.317 1.939 42.831 1.309 0.590 132.914 2.520 2.142 42.622 1.100 0.381 132.705 2.311 1.933 42.589 1.067 0.348 132.672 2.278 1.900
Water Requirements for Solar Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh SOLAR Item Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High Consumption m^3/MWh Low High
Notes/Assumptions
Sources Stoddard, et al.2006 [W,C/L]; The Last Straw [W,C/H] Stoddard, et al.2006 [W,C/H,L] Solar Paces 2007 [W,C/L]; Stoddard et al. 2006 [W,C/H] The Last Straw; Stoddard et al. [W,C/H,L]
Parabolic Trough Plant - wet cooling Parabolic Dish-Engine - dry cooling Power Tower - wet cooling PV - Distributed (Rooftop) Systems PV - Large Centralized Plants PV - Concentrating PV Systems
2.80 0 2.40 0 0 0
2.87 0 2.80 0 0 0
2.80 0 2.40 0 0 0
Withdrawn is equivilant to consumed when withdrawn numbers are not 2.87 available. 0 No cooling required. 2.80 0 No cooling required. 0 No cooling required. 0 No cooling required.
Parabolic Trough Plant washing Parabolic Dish-Engine washing
0.14 0
0.27 0
0.14 0
High number found by subtracting the Stoddard, et al.2006 [W,C/L], cooling water amt from the cooling and Direct Communication, Mike process water amt listed for this Roverson, Kramer Junction 0.27 technology in the Last Straw [W,C/L], Last Straw [W,C/H] 0 Stoddard, et al.2006 [W,C/H,L] Assumed to be roughly equal to washing needs of a Parabolic Trough 0.14 plant as both have large mirror fields. Number for PV washing requirments used for both large plants and 0.11 distributed gen (rooftop). Number for PV washing requirments used for both large plants and 0.11 distributed gen (rooftop). 0 The Last Straw; AWEA Website 2006
Power Tower washing PV - Distributed (Rooftop) Systems washing
0
0.14
0
0 PV - Large Centralized Plant washing PV - Concentrating PV Systems washing 0 0
0.11
0
0.11 0
0 0
AWEA Website 2006 Stoddard, et al.2006
Solar Power Production Method
Withdrawal Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High CSP - Parabolic Trough System 2.94 3.14 CSP - Parabolic Dish-Engine System 0 0 CSP - Power Tower Plant 2.540 2.800 0.0038 0.114 PV - Distributed (Rooftop) Systems 0.000 0.114 PV - Large Centralized Plant PV - Concentrating PV Systems 0 0
Consumptive Water Requirement (m3/MWh) Low High 2.94 3.14 0 0 2.540 2.800 0.004 0.114 0.000 0.114 0 0
Water Requirements for Wind Power Production All Numbers in m3/MWh WIND Item Withdrawal m^3/MWh Low High Consumption m^3/MWh Low High Notes/Assumptions If the wind turbines are never cleaned, then the withdrawal and consumption 0 equals zero
Sources [W/L]: van Dam; [W/H]: AWEA 2006; [C/L]: van Dam; [C/H]: AWEA 2006
Cleaning medium sized wind farms
0
0
0
Cleaning large sized wind farms
0
0
0
If the wind turbines are never cleaned, then the withdrawal and consumption equals zero Wind farms can operate at 30% of nameplate capacity If washed, turbines are washed 3 [W/L]: van Dam; [W/H]: J. Harris times/year 2006; [C/L]: van Dam; [C/H]: J. 0 Each turbine uses 40 gallons per washing Harris 2006
Wind Power Production Method
Withdrawal Consumptive Water Water Requirement Requirement (m3/MWh) (m3/MWh) Low High Low High 0.0000 0.0038 0.0000 0.0038 0.0000 0.0025 0.0000 0.0025
Medium sized wind farm Large sized wind farm
Conversion of Units Instructions: insert the value you have in the left box, and the coversion will be done automatically to right box Volume/energy unit 130 gal/kWh 65 gal/MWh 54 liters/kWh 1.16 ft^3/MWs ### gal/MWd 195 Mg/GJ 2.62E-06 ac-ft/kWh 0 m^3/J 70 acre-ft/MWe = = = = = = = = 492.05 m^3/MWh Energy 2.46E-01 m^3/MWh 54 m^3/MWh 118.4 m^3/MWh 205.35 m^3/MWh Volume 7.02E+02 m^3/MWh 3.23E+00 m^3/MWh 9.00E-02 m^3/MWh 8.64E+01 m^3/kW 1.62E+02 m^3/MWh 0.2323 m^3/MWh 1.20E-12 m^3/J 0.53 kWh/m^3 0.53 kWh/m^3 1 1 1 1234 1 1 1 1 1.00E+12 1 1.00E+18 1 barrel crude oil 1 barrel crude oil 1
Quick reference/conversio 1
45 km^3/10^18 J = 64.52 m^3/10^12 J 4.32E-06 m^3/kWh = =
2000 kWh/megagallon = 652 kWh/af
matically to right box Quick reference/conversion MW kWh J GJ J 1 barrel crude oil 1 barrel crude oil J = = = = = = = = 1000 kW 3.60E+06 Joules 2.78E+05 kWh 277.8 kWh 2.78E+11 kWh 5.80E+06 Btu 1.70E+03 kWh 2.78E-07 kWh 1000 liters 264.2 gallons (U.S.) 35.31 ft^3 1 acre-foot 1000000000 m^3 1 m^3 378.54 m^3
m^3 = m^3 = m^3 = m^3 = km^3 = Mg (Million grams) = megagallon =
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